Discovering Instructional Design 11: The Kemp Model

The Morrison, Ross and Kemp Model, more commonly known as the Kemp Model defines different elements – not “step, stage, level, or sequential item” (Morrison, Ross & Kemp 2004, p.10) of an instructional design, and emphasizes the adoption of continuous implementation and evaluation through the instructional design process.

According to Morrison et al, there are nine key elements to instructional design:

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

These elements are independent of each other, in that they do not need to be considered in a linear fashion and there is no particular start- and end point. The oval shape of this model (see Figure 1) is constructed to convey the idea that the design and development process is an iterative cycle that needs constant planning, design, development and assessment to ensure effective instruction.

Figure 1. The Morrison-Ross-Kemp Model
[Click to enlarge]

The model is systemic and nonlinear; it encourages designers to work in all areas of ID as appropriate. The use of ovals emphasizes this flexibility visually; the graphical design communicates a continuous non-linear cycle that requires iterative planning, design, development and assessment. The inner oval (surrounding the core) illustrates that revision/formative evaluation activities can be undertaken at each stage of the development process, something that is not always built into other models, usually because of the constraints of time and money.

The outer oval includes a typical post-instruction activity (summative evaluation) and also highlights three elements usually absent from other models – namely project planning, project management, and support services. The latter are required both for the project itself while it is in development, and afterwards to support the actual instruction.

We can say that it describes a holistic approach to instructional design that considers all factors in the environment; the starting point and order in which the designer addresses them is not prescribed, though the elements in the model may form a logical design sequence when read anti-clockwise (see Figure 2).

Figure 1. The ADDIE steps applied to the M-R-K Model
(after Morrison, Ross & Kemp 2004, p.29)
[Click to enlarge]

The flexibility of this approach is reinforced by the absence of lines or arrows that would dictate a specific design sequence (see Dick and Carey's Model) as a comparison. According to Presenera (2002) the Kemp Model is designed to primarily to appeal to (classroom-based) teachers, who may not have specific instructional design experience.

The Morrison-Ross-Kemp model has three characteristics that differentiate it from some other models:

• instruction is considered from the perspective of the learner
• the model takes a general systems or even object-oriented view towards instructional development
• the model emphasizes management of the instructional design process

Using the model

Using this model the instructional designer begins by asking six questions related to the skills or knowledge to be learned: required level of learner readiness; instructional strategies and media that are be most appropriate for the content and the target population; level of learner support required; measurement of achievement; and strategies for formative and summative evaluation.

(Morrison, Ross, and Kemp, 2004, p. 4).

Because of the lack of connectivity between elements and the facility for IDs to start at any place within the model, a designer can examine the entire scope of a project - or just as effectively work on a single learning object or lesson. Using this classroom-oriented model, an individual with little instructional design skill can develop a piece of instruction using few or no additional resources and with minimal front-end analysis. Similarly, there is no requirement to conduct formative and summative evaluation on the final materials (Gustafson and Branch 2002, p.16). A more experienced designer (or one with access to more resources) can also use this model in the design of a complex and widely-distributed learning program.

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References:

Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). What is instructional design? In R.A. Reiser & J. A. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 16-25). Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Kemp, J. E. (1985). The instructional design process. New York: Harper & Row.

Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. V. (2004). Design effective instruction, (4th Ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons

Prestera, Gus. (2002). Instructional Design Models [Internet]. Available from: http://www.effectperformance.com/sites/prestera/html/M4/L1%20-%20ISD/M4L1P1.htm#kemp Accessed: 3rd June 2009

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M-Learning 7: Consuming m-learning

According to a recent Forrester report, enterprises are making smartphones and mobile applications (including m-learning) a priority, and formalizing or executing a mobile strategy is a priority for 49% of North American and European enterprises.

Figure 1 A Snapshot Of Enterprise Mobility Today (after Forrester Inc., 2008)

The ubiquity of mobile devices ensures that there is a ready market for m-learning content. I would assert that learning designers should take advantage of information workers’ experiences as consumers of content in other domains to successfully implement e-learning on mobile devices.

Now read on…

Forrester’s BlackBerry: An Emerging Platform For Mobile Collaboration study states that two-thirds of companies have fully deployed wireless e-mail, calendars, and contacts. Another 16% of firms are in the process of implementing wireless e-mail. That means over four-fifths of enterprises are using mobile messaging applications. This near-ubiquity of support for converged media devices (CMDs) puts a potentially very powerful learning channel literally in the hands of hundreds or thousands of employees today.

We can say that mobile phones and wireless e-mail are central to the activities of organizations. With the right mobile content and collaboration applications, most information workers could be both productive and in an always-on learning environment – imagine people learning while walking down the hall to a meeting, cramming in a little work before bedtime, or waiting for the train. CMDs are more valuable to information workers if they support:

Access to file systems, team workspaces, or intranet portals. It’s frustrating for organizations to invest heavily in content management systems and workspaces, only to find that the information is locked away, available only to desktop workers in an office environment. On-the-go information workers would save time if they could find and view information on their CMDs. The importance and effectiveness of mobile access to content is easily demonstrated: we live in a world where the President of the United States has firmly asserted the he is

…still clinging to my BlackBerry. They’re going to pry it out of my hands.

New York Times

A mobile browser that brings the Internet into learners’ hands. Devices like the iPhone, with its touchscreen, gesture-based interaction model, and Safari browser make the mobile Internet almost as functional as the Web on a desktop. Having access to on-demand information and learning on a device is a powerful plus for all information workers.

Instant messaging and ‘presence’. Virtual and ad hoc teams need to quickly connect, engage, and move on. Subject matter experts need to be available when needed. Presence means that a person’s availability is always known.

Training sessions that can be done while waiting for the bus, train, or in an airport boarding lounge. If learning content is packaged appropriately, hosted on a mobile learning management system, and delivered to a CMD, information workers can learn in their downtime.

M-Learning on the iPhone

As we chart the rise of non-formal, informal, and social learning, my view is that media, information, and communications applications will emerge that make learning fun. RSS feeds, updates, video, games, and social networks are just some of the engaging and effective ways that information workers (in their other life as consumers) already get their information.

With the lines between work and personal time disappearing, learning applications should have the friendly face of regular consumer applications. According to Drego et al (2009), of North American CMD owners with a job, 60% use their devices to access the Internet, 43% to read the news, 33% to check RSS-delivered information, and 28% to download or stream music and podcasts. This is a huge ready-made market for m-learning content.

M-learning's strongest capability is its timeliness. The relative effectiveness of mobile data channels is device- and software-dependent, but the ability to make contact any time, any where is a universal strength. Although the iPhone and other devices won’t replace those with a larger form factor any time soon, these devices benefit from the advantages of portability and ubiquity.

iPhone websites excel at providing information in multichannel contexts. Although the iPhone can access almost any Web site, many organizations choose to tailor sites for the iPhone’s small screen and strip them of Java- and Flash-based content. The best mobile sites support targeted, mobile-specific browsing behaviors such as search and content delivery. For example, YouTube enables viewers to search for content, read user ratings and reviews, and of course easily stream content.

More…

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References:

Drego, V. L., Rogowski, R., & Zinser, R. (2009) Match iPhone Capabilities To Customer Goals [Internet] Available from: http://www.forrester.com Accessed 17 February 2009

Schadler, T. (2008) BlackBerry: An Emerging Platform For Mobile Collaboration. [Internet] Available from: http://www.forrester.com Accessed 17 February 2009

Zeleny, J. (2009) ‘Obama Digs In for His BlackBerry’ In: The New York Times [Internet] Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/us/politics/08berry.html?_r=1&em Accessed 20 February 2009

Mobile Learning 6: Effective Learning on Portable Devices

Before I investigate developing learning content for mobile devices I think it will be useful to conclude my current “list-mania” by describing m-learning in education generally. So, today’s post outlines some of the ways m-learning is being used.

Low-cost mass learning. The mobile phone is the only information device available to citizens in many parts of the world. This has prompted experiments using basic phone facilities, such as voice and Short Message Service (SMS), to support educational initiatives.

Low-cost education as a service. According to Gartner’s Nick Jones, companies such as Nokia are piloting low-cost educational services in emerging markets, such as India. These services exploit a simple interface on the phone, which delivers information and lessons using lowest common- denominator data contracts — for example, avoiding even the need for general packet radio service.

"Edutainment." Combining education and entertainment using games and simulations is a powerful learning technique. This can also leverage the substantial mobile application development experience of the gaming industry. Examples include a mobile augmented reality simulation game that tracks environmental pollution, and a mobile phone game to reduce the impact of culture shock when students arrive in a new country that's very different from their home countries.

Surveys, exams, questionnaires, data gathering and feedback. Mobile devices can provide an excellent platform for simple surveys, examinations, questionnaires and real-time feedback. Examples include lecture feedback, real-time surveys and simple multi-choice tests (for example, teaching vocabulary when learning a new language). At their simplest, these can be delivered as SMS messages asking the user to choose and option and respond, possibly with a deadline.

Performance support through instant information. Generally reference material (not learning) including simple media such as text, as well as richer media taking advantage of 3G connectivity. An example of performance support via a mobile phone is the wide range of dictionaries available for PDAs, covering a wide range of languages, law, medicine and other professional topics.

Creating learning material. Mobile phones are the most numerous audio, imaging and video capture devices available, and will play an important role in the creation of learning material as the facility to edit content and distribute material to YouTube-like nodes increases in sophistication. iPhone users can already author blog posts via the WordPress app.

Task/role-specific tools. Some organizations in have created specialized tools to allow access to specific learning and simulation material using a mobile device. SalesForce have build an iPhone app that enables customers access information through the iPhone's touch screen.

Learning support and administration. Many organizations experimenting with m -learning have explored mobile support for learning management and administration. Examples include reminders that assignments are due; flash-card applications to aid learning; and organizer applications to assist new students with their lecture timetables and finding the locations of lectures.

More…

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References:

Jones, N. (2008) M-Learning Opportunities and Applications. ID Number: G00163293 Gartner Research [Internet] Available from: http://www.gartner.com (Subscription or purchase required) Accessed 17 February 2009

Kineo and UFI/Learndirect (2009) Mobile Learning Reviewed. [Internet] Available from: http://www.kineo.com/documents/Mobile_learning_reviewed_final.pdf Accessed 17th February 2009

M-Learning via the iPhone 5 – more opportunities than before

In my last post about mobile learning, I looked at the theories and pedagogical strategies that could support m-learning. In today’s post, I will start to catalog the types of learning that mobile technologies and devices can potentially support. This will provide the foundation to discuss using m-learning as one of a number of learning channels (what used to be called “blended learning”).

As I progress through this series of articles on mobile learning, I will continue by looking at design and development approaches that are appropriate for m-learning. If I can find any research on the topic I will conclude this short series by investigating the benefits of m-learning on learners. I will also be learning Spanish, cataloging last year’s vacation snaps, doing the garden for Spring, and training for a 10K run in April. But that’s not important right now.

Now read on…

According to Gartner’s Nick Jones:

The opportunities of m-learning are driven by the ubiquity and familiarity of mobile devices, and because they allow just-in-time access to learning material whenever and wherever the user wants it. The low cost of entry-level mobile devices and basic services, such as SMS, is also attractive when delivering educational material to low-income learners.

(M-Learning Opportunities and Applications , p.5)

We can say that m-learning can be used to provide a range of different types of learning including:

Media delivery: Converged Media Devices (CMDs) play audio and video. They are excellent platforms for delivering simple multimedia learning material. For example, podcasting is an easy technology to work with and can be consumed on a wide range of devices. Many CMDs can display information formats, such as web pages and interactive content which support immersive learning experiences. Many mobile devices can also access media resources such as YouTube.

Contextual and exploratory learning: Some of the most innovative m-learning applications are contextual or exploratory, involving information related to particular tasks or locations. Museums and galleries have deployed a number of educational systems of this sort. Recent examples include tagging exhibits in art galleries

Storage and delivery of reference documents: CMDs and e-books from vendors such as Amazon and Sony can display a variety of document formats. Most e-book readers support PDF. CMDs typically support PDF and a non-editable productivity document formats, such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint and Excel. Such devices can be used as a pocket archive of reference documents. For example, some organizations deliver parts of their disaster recovery plan onto employees' mobile phones so that, in the event of an emergency, each employee has access to a quick and up-to-date reference of what individuals need to do. E-book readers are less pocketable, but can provide a convenient way to store and deliver large numbers of documents in a small volume. In the consumer domain, there are many instances of mobile devices used as a delivery channel for documents that previous generations would have consumed on paper. Popular examples include city guides and maps.

Time-sensitive learning. Industries such as financial services and healthcare have a business requirement to ensure that employees read specific documents, such as new regulations, immediately after they are published. Mobile devices are good delivery platforms for small but urgent documents. They provide a number of ways, such as mobile e-mail, for employees to receive documentation and confirm that they have read it.

Information feeds and fragments. Many learning activities deliver small amounts of information regularly — for example, health education. SMS works well on all mobile devices; a high-end Web-friendly mobile phone and MIDs can display feeds using formats such as Really Simple Syndication (RSS). A variation on this theme is using the mobile device to support learning by providing a quick way to look up information fragments — for example, on-device dictionaries for language translation.

Web and portal content. The Web is a delivery tool for many types of learning and reference material. Although most of this is in formats that are not well-adapted to small screens, MIDs and high-end smartphones, such as the iPhone, with larger screens and full HTML browsers can display Web content tolerably; and it's possible to develop or adapt content for smaller screens (see Note 2). Some mobile devices and platforms have the capability to access material in corporate document management systems, such as SharePoint.

More…

________________________

References:

Jones, N. (2008) M-Learning Opportunities and Applications. ID Number: G00163293 Gartner Research [Internet] Available from: http://www.gartner.com (Subscription or purchase required) Accessed 17 February 2009

Kineo and UFI/Learndirect (2009) Mobile Learning Reviewed. [Internet] Available from: http://www.kineo.com/documents/Mobile_learning_reviewed_final.pdf Accessed 17th February 2009

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Do Generation Xers learn differently to Boomers and the Internet Generation?

A colleague asked me recently "do you take somebody's age into account when designing and delivering training for them?"

As a learning professional in the IT industry, it's my job to provide learning resources for the employees in my organization. Broadly speaking, my colleagues were born between 1965 and 1982 - the so-called Generation X cohort, with a number of people born before this date range (who the Americans call 'Baby Boomers') and a few - increasing - new hires born after this time, variously called Generation Y, the Net Generation, self-regarding narcissists, Generation Next , depending on who you ask.

My colleague's question got me thinking: as well as individual learning styles (VAK, multiple intelligences and so on) are there generational learning styles? More specifically, is it the case that the technology you were exposed to as a child has some effect on the way you learn throughout your life? As an extension of this, are learning professionals using the most effective channels to enable learners to develop their skills, knowledge and experience in further education and workplace environments, or are we 'boxed in' by unconscious biases determined by the teaching approaches, technologies and media we ourselves were taught with?

I haven't carried out much research on this question, but have the educational media types and attendant technologies described in Table 1 'hard-wired' each generation's cognitive processes to acquire knowledge in specific ways?

Table 1. Generational learning modalities

Generation	Paradigm	Educational Media Types
Boomer	Analog	Projected Slides Overhead projector Film Reel-to-reel tape Slide Rule
GenX	Transistor	All the above as well as… Cassette Tape Video tape Electronic Calculator Personal computers (Apple II, Commodore PET etc)
Gen Next	Microprocessor	All the above as well as… CD-ROM (Early CBT) DVD PowerPoint Personal Computers (IBM PC, Windows 3.1) Internet 1.0 (Alta Vista, Yahoo! Discussion Forums etc) Internet Messenger Mobile (cellular) phones
Millennial	Networked	Some of the above as well as… Web 2.0 Web-based training/online educational resources Personal laptops/PDAs Blogs Wikis Podcasts Second Life Social Networking

Marc Prensky would say that there is some validity in this. As he asserted in his seminal article Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, we can say that there is a well-established divide between those born pre- and post-1990 - Gartner, in their 2008 Symposium, recognized that the generation now entering the workplace "think different" (to appropriate a phrase).

Could the same be said for Boomers and Xers and does this effect the ways people of these groups acquire knowledge? I'm a Gen X kid and I guess we were probably the first generation to have "home computers" (Sinclair ZX Spectrum 16K anyone?) and home gaming systems like the Atari, as well as access to machines like the Apple II and the Commodore PET in a classroom environment. I can't say if having access to this technology changed the way I learned, because using these tools was the way I learned. Similarly, mine was probably the last generation to use log tables in maths class and simultaneously the first generation to use electronic calculators (despite fears at the time that using such gadgets would "weaken the brain" - I kid you not - I heard a teacher use that phrase).

Would I have developed differently if I had been born 10 years earlier and used a slide rule? Or 20 years later, where I could carry out calculations on my mobile phone?

Probably.

I don't know enough about the learning styles of those born in the Baby Boom years to make a judgement about how differently their early development was affected by their environment and the learning tools available to them, but I would make an educated guess that the ongoing learning needs of that generation would require a different strategy to that of Gen Xers, which in turn would require a different approach to how digital natives learn.

Interesting times ahead.

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Come along down to Learning Town

One of the early evangelists of E-Learning, Eliott Masie, has launched a Ning-based e-learning social network called Learning Town - A Village for Learning Professionals. It's free and vendor-neutral, so nobody is trying to push their products or services on you (too much: there's always the odd chancer).

At the time of posting, nearly 3000 people in the learning industry have signed up for the network - in 8 days. I think I'm justified in describing this as an internet phenomenon. We'll see in time whether it maintains this initial momentum or whether it will develop a classic "long tail" but if you're in the habit of contributing to the blogoshere or social networking sites, it is in my view a nicely centralised location to interact with you peers.

The site has a broad range of features including:

• Personal Page
• Blog Hosting
• Forums
• Discussions
• Digital Media Content Hosting
• Audio Player
  
  

[my profile page on Learning Town]

For me, one of the most stimulating areas of the site is the innocuously named "Groups" section. Groups provides members with a platform to share, debate, argue, and discuss a range of learning-related topics. I've detailed a list of the most active groups below - as you can see, it's a quite comprehensive range of the types of topics learning professionals encounter while carrying out their work.

Groups

• Instructional Design: For learning professionals that want to discuss Instructional Design strategies and perhaps how to take a new approach in this area.
• e-Learning Dialogues: For learning professionals that want to discuss e-Learning strategies, tips, and tools and perhaps how to take a new approach in this area.
• Podcasting for Learning
• Rapid Learning Design: A forum for learning professionals on creating learning content quickly and effectively.
• Women and Learning: A forum for women learning professionals.
• Mobile Learning Group: For members using/curious about using mobile devices for learning.
• Neuroscience & Leadership: For members curious about neuroscience and it’s connection to learning and leadership.
• Boomer Learning
• 3D Virtual Worlds: This group focuses on learning in a virtual environment.
• Performance Support Group Description: A forum for discussing strategies, tips, and tools that support "learning at the moment of need".
• Learning Leaders: CLO, VP for Learning, Learning Managers Network Here
• Evaluation and Metrics
• Computer & IT Training
• Learning Systems '08: A private GROUP for participants in Learning Systems '08.
• Selling Learning: This is for professionals who are selling or marking learning products or services
• Learning and Careers
• What's it Cost?: This group is geared towards people interested in Intellectual Property and Training. Feel free to discuss!
• Healthcare and Learning
• Higher Ed & Learning: This is a group designed for colleagues in the Higher Education field to collaborate on learning at the Higher Education level.
• Learning Standards: This group is designed for Learning Colleagues interested in learning and discussing more about AICC & SCORM

Come on down to Learning Town - you'll be glad you dropped by!

FOGRA: If there's any Irish Learning professionals out there that is interested in setting up a group on this site, or setting up a similar ideas exchange on a similar platform, let me know - I'm up for it.

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Constructivism Pt.7: Social Learning cont'd

In terms of a learner’s cognitive development, Vygotsky's argues that learning precedes development. As developmental processes lag behind learning processes, less experienced or developed individuals can often carry out tasks with the help of others when they could not accomplish these tasks independently. The knowledge, behaviours and skills that learners demonstrate when assisted are actually in the process of becoming internalised in the learner’s schemata - the script is being written.

As in Kolb’s and Fry’s four-stage cycle, this is a recursive process: unlike the experiential model though, the dialectic “tension” is a social discourse between the learner and the MKO, rather than the modes described in the experiential model. Vygotsky (1978) maintains that cognitive development occurs in this area of the learning continuum in what he calls the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). The ZPD is the gap between a learner's actual development level and the learner's potential level of development. Vygotsky described the ZPD as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (1978, p.86). This process of learning and encoding knowledge is analogous to some of Gagné’s Events of Learning (1985), where the MKO presents a learning stimulus, guides learning through example, elicits performance from the learner and provides feedback. Similarly, it provides a theoretical foundation for Bruner’s concept of instructional scaffolding - the learner current level of knowledge can an edifice that represents their cognitive abilities. Mayes and de Freitas (2005) describe the scaffolding as “a means of exploiting the ZPD” (p.19). The cognitive scaffold surrounds what is already known and can be done. The new is built on top of the known as the learner develops, and over time the supports can be removed as the learner can independently actualise the knowledge, behaviour or skill. Each new learned skill asset becomes a level in the learner’s constructed schema and this becomes the foundation for extending the learner’s ongoing development.

Figure 1 Zone of Proximal Development

The concepts of the ZPD and scaffolding are central to how individuals develop using e-learning: how these concepts can be implemented will be explored in a later blog entry.

References:

de Freitas, S. & Mayes, T. (2005). JISC e-Learning Models Desk Study Stage 2: Review of e-learning theories, frameworks and models. [Online] London, JISC. Available from: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/
Stage%202%20Learning%20Models%20(Version%201).pdf
[Accessed 15th January 2007]

Fry, R. & Kolb, D. A. (1975) Toward an Applied Theory of Experiential Learning. IN: Theory of Group Processes. (Cooper, C. ed). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc

Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society. Edited by Cole, M. John-Steiner, V. Scribner, Souberman, E. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press

Constructivism Pt.6: Social Learning

As I will discuss in a later blog entry, I believe that knowledge working is intimately bound within the organisational context: knowledge workers use their skills and experience to innovate solutions to real-world problems. One of the primary conditions of knowledge working is the social aspect – knowledge workers typically collaborate with their peers, whether they are individuals with similar skill assets, such as application development teams working in an agile software development environment, or in project teams which require knowledge workers from different disciplines (technical architects, business analysts, and product consultants, for example) to cooperate in the implementation of the solutions on a customer site. Within any given organisation then, knowledge workers evolve a culture – what Bates and Plog (1990) define as “the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, and artifacts that the members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are transmitted through learning [my italics]” (p.7) - to enable groups to perform tasks within the context of the organisation. Recognition of the social and interactive nature of knowledge working is one of the key drivers for the live component of the "Information Sessions" I developed for one organisation I am associated with (this will be discussed in more detail at a later time): at any given time, individual workers in an organisation have more-or-less tacit and explicit knowledge on a given topic than their co-workers, and collectively a very high level of expertise across a range of topics exists.

So, one of the goals of the Information Sessions is to create an learning environment that integrates Jonassen’s eight characteristics for constructivist learning and where an individual’s expertise could manifest itself through various artifacts of learning (presentations, demonstrations and so on) and through debate and discussion be transmitted to their peer group. This combination of artifacts and dialogue creates a socially mediated environment where new knowledge is constructed for both the individual learner and for the group; as John F. Kennedy asserted in 1962 “a rising tide lifts all boats” (Oxford Library of Words and Phrases, 1981, p.141). This methodology aligns with the Social Constructivist approach to learning. As Lev Vygotsky, one of social constructivism’s main proponents asserted learning is mediated through social interaction of learners and what Driscoll (1994) called More Knowledgeable Others (MKOs) – more experienced peers, mentors, instructors and so on. At any point in the learning process, the learner experiences threes states:

1. Knowledge, skills and tasks already learned, that can be performed independently by the learner
2. those that cannot be performed even with help
3. those that fall between the two extremes - activities that can be performed with help from others
   
   

References:

Bates, D, G. & Plog F. (1990) Cultural Anthropology. 3rd ed. Berkshire, McGraw-Hill College

Brown, J. S. Collins, C. & Duguid (1989) Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning [Internet] Educational Researcher 18(1), pp. 32-42, Jan-Feb 1989. Available from: http://tiger.coe.missouri.edu/%7Ejonassen/courses/CLE/index.html [Accessed January 12th 2007]

Characteristics of Constructivism (2004) Internet. Available from: http://www.worc.ac.uk/LTMain/LTC/StaffDev/
Constructivism/Characteristics.html [Accessed 7th January 2008]

Exclusive Interview with Professor David Jonassen (2001) IN: elearningpost [Internet] Available from: http://www.elearningpost.com/articles/archives/
exclusive_interview_with_professor_david_jonassen [Accessed 12th January 2007]

Oxford Library of Words and Phrases, Vol. 1. (1981). Oxford University Press