Podcast Authoring: Understanding and Remembering

Control over the rate at which ideas are presented is completely in the hands of the instructional designer and the content author, and it is one of the duties of the person producing a podcast (such as an e-learning professional or media production expert) to advise on how concepts may be best presented.

This can be achieved by:

• Giving workshops (with varying degrees of sophistication, depending on the skills and experience of the content originator, the SME and the instructional designer)
• Directing scriptwriters as to the needs and dynamic of audio presentations
• Rewriting particular pieces to make them more acceptable for audio delivery (in extreme cases)

Being literate by nature and education, the instructional designers and courseware developers often fall into the trap of assuming that what looks well-shaped in the form of a script on the page, will be so in audio form or when delivered verbally.

Unfortunately, this may not be the case. For it also depends at the rate at which new ideas are presented. Take the case of Pythagoras' theorem: this can be rendered as

In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).

or

a² + b² = c²

or

Figure 1. Pythagoras’ Theorem

On the printed page, this fundamental of Euclidean geometry can be presented as a concise, elegant argument - and the eye will dwell on it until understood. In the medium of sound, such a construction is out of the question.

In order to ensure even a moderate degree of intelligibility, the argument must sometimes be slowed down to what may seem (in literary terms) like an impossibly slack pace.

For example, say the following aloud:

Click Insert –> Break –> Next Page.

This may be acceptable in a textbook, but to the user this is just a series of non-connected words (unless you know the context). In this highly condensed case, there is no exact or predictable control over what the user picks out. From an audio point of view, this construction is totally unacceptable.

Now (by again saying out loud), contrast the above with:

To insert a next page break into a Microsoft Word document, click on the Insert tab in the ribbon. Click on the Page Break button.

A next page break has been added to the document.

Here, the context is given, the language is logical, and the user is led comfortably and humanely through the procedure, feeling that they have achieved something, not that a series of demands has been made of them.

So even if a user is intellectually equipped and motivated to follow a concise, complex line of instruction, they need time - more time than it takes to present the bare bones of a set of directions - to let it ‘sink in.’ They need time to process the information in their short-term memory and undertake the requested actions or activities.

Direct faults in presentation are:

• Taking too much background knowledge for granted
• The use of unfamiliar words
• The use of unexplained jargon
• The use of flowery analogies or abstractions
• Poor logical construction
• Unnecessarily complex sentences

A good working rule to follow is:

Do not use language that you would not use yourself in everyday speech.

In a learning or informational context, I would suggest that you spend not less than two minutes of total podcast runtime setting the context of your subject matter or learning objectives if the audience is unfamiliar with the topic being discussed. Of course, this is a heuristic or rule of thumb: for unsophisticated subject it may be possible to do less, while a complex argument will need longer to establish fully. In the latter case, it may be better to break the discussion down into stages.

In a 10-minute podcast, for example, I my experience is that it’s possible to cover two major points. The rest of the ten minutes must be spent supporting and linking those points (through example, simulation etc.). If a third point is introduced, it is likely that one of the three points will be lost. To take an extreme case, if ten major points are introduced, then nearly all of them will be lost, and the user may be left with the frustrating feeling that they have missed something. Alternatively, they may remember one of the points that appealed to them, plus the thought that this was part of a pattern that included half a dozen other points that on first hearing seemed plausible.

Cast your mind back to your E-Learning 101 experience – practically the first thing you’re told is that unlike in the classroom, you can’t rely on feedback from your audience about the pace of delivery, which in ILT is subject to the immediate correction of the learners. In contrast, when speaking to an 'invisible classroom' there is a perception or pressure to 'get on with it', because there is nearly always more to say than time to say it.

More…

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Producing Podcasts: Some Considerations for Content Creators

First of all, a (longish) pre-amble...

Anthony Bates, author of Technology, e-learning and distance education (2005) states that audio (via radio broadcast) has been used in education for over seventy years. Examples of its uses include school broadcasting, informal general education, social action programming, and adult basic education and literacy (p.117).

Since its inception in 1969, the British Open University supplied about one-fifth of its output via radio programming. Typically it such programming centered around:

Discussions of course material or issues covered in printed materials

• Alternative viewpoints to those contained in the printed materials (i.e. guest speakers interpreting a text)
• Source materials for analysis (i.e. children's speech patterns)
• 'Performance' pieces, including poetry readings, dramatizations of literature, musical performances

There are of course drawbacks to delivering content via radio broadcast or via analog tape. Radio broadcasts are wholly dependent on the broadcaster's schedule, and minority programming is usually relegated to inconvenient "graveyard slots" - the learner has no flexibility around the schedule. Similarly, broadcasted material happens in real-time - the learner has no facility to 'rewind and play back' a presentation if they miss a point, unless they tape the program 'off the air' (if you're old enough to remember, you'll recall that this could be a messy business).

Cassette tapes had their problems too: analog recordings deteriorate with use and over time, tapes cassettes have many moving parts, the actual magnetic tape can break and become degaussed, and if you have a lot of them, they're bulky to store.

The introduction of CD-ROMs in the late 1980's mitigated most of these issues, and in a sense were the hardware breakthrough that presaged the beginnings of e-learning as we know it today. However, CD-based materials were expensive to produce, many pre-Pentium and PowerPC processors couldn't handle the multimedia requirements needed to view and listen to the material delivered via this medium (800x600 CRT monitor, anyone?).

It was the emergence of the internet that genuinely facilitated audio and visual media-based learning. But that, my friends, is a tale that's still being told, so I'm not going to discuss it here.

The Open University today, on iTunes U

All I will say here is that the internet enables access to e-learning content:

• For Anyone. E-Learning resources are available on-demand, via synchronous and asynchronous channels
• Anywhere. Digital content can be distributed just as easily on a home-based PC, a laptop, or (increasingly) via a mobile device. Content can be viewed both online and offline for maximum flexibility.
  
• At Any Time. You no longer need to rely on an IT department for distribution of large media files; content is easily delivered on demand to facilitate self-paced, OTJ and just-in-time learning.

Now read on...

The purpose of this long pre-amble was to emphasize the importance of understanding your target audience. When you start work on a podcast, you must be aware of not only what is to be said, but also to whom you want to say it. This is not merely a matter of your audience's intelligence, but also of background, experiences and outlook. It is also powerfully related to the things that the listener would like to do - ranging from learning Spanish for a vacation, to passing their Microsoft Office User Specialist certification.

Podcasts - like blogs - develop a distinctive 'personality' according to the characteristics of the source material, the type of audience that material is aimed at, and the individual or team who produce the podcast. So, a Wired News podcast reviewing the latest and greatest computer technologies will sound very different from a podcast about conversational French for beginners.

A study in to the effect of BBC educational broadcasts noted that too many 'teaching points' (what we usually call learning objectives) - more than six per 15 minutes of programming were definitely bad for the user's learning curve. Interestingly, where long, complex sentences with difficult vocabulary and a lot of prepositions did appear to have an adverse effect on intelligibility, the presence of a large number of adverbs and adjectives did not.

The conclusion was drawn that an apparent excess of facts, figures and descriptive terms is no disadvantage, because although they may not be assimilated themselves, they help maintain interest during the learning intervention.

More...
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References:

Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, e-learning and distance education. Oxford: Routledge Falmer

Read more: http://elearningcurve.blogspot.com/2009/07/exploring-podcasting-for-e-learning-and.html#ixzz0MjnglJ8i

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Exploring Podcasting for E-Learning (and new podcast episode released)

I'm exploring the medium of podcasting at the moment. I've previously discussed podcasting in general here, but in my view there can (and should) be more to the medium than the well-trodden 'single voice-over discusses topic' - what I call the 'fireside chat' - podcast format. To undertake this successfully demands a theoretical understanding and competency in a number of domains.

I will outline the technical aspects of creating, recording, producing, and distributing podcasts at a later time, but for now, I want to investigate some aspects of audio delivered via podcast as a learning channel.

The greatest advantage of the sound medium lies in its direct appeal to the imagination. There is a (probably apocryphal) story told that a child once said they liked radio better than TV 'because there are better pictures on the radio'. The sound 'pictures' are better because they are built in the mind and imagination of the user. If done correctly, ideas and meaning can be conjured up in sound as easily as a software simulation demonstrates the steps involved in formatting a spreadsheet...

...well, perhaps not quite so easily. Sound demands a greater contribution from the learner than visually presented material. To compel this involvement - and to deserve it - the material emerging from a loudspeaker must maintain a high level of interest throughout. If it drops for one moment, the imagination is turned off like a light and all real communication is lost. However, there are many ways to stimulate the imagination: to some extent, they depend on form, and to some extent they depend on studio and recording technique. Apart from this, what is done is a matter for individual judgment and intuition.

In the analysis of any podcast, we should probably take interest as our starting point, because the one factor that all successful podcasts have in common is their ability to engage and retain the audience's interest. Gauging interest depends on our previous life experiences: we know what we like; what we're not motivated to care about leaves us relatively indifferent - very few people are interested in subjects that cannot be explained in terms of concepts that are already understood.

In this context, a podcast presents a learning stimulus, guides knowledge acquisition or learning through example, and elicits understanding. As such a podcast is a practical example of Bruner’s concept of instructional scaffolding - the learner's current level of knowledge can be described as an edifice that represents their cognitive abilities. Mayes and de Freitas (2005) describe the scaffolding as “a means of exploiting the ZPD” (p.19). The cognitive scaffold surrounds what is already known and can be done. The new is built on top of the known as the learner develops, and over time the supports can be removed as the learner can independently actualize the knowledge, behavior or skill. Each new learned knowledge or asset becomes a level in the learner’s constructed schema and this becomes the foundation for extending the learner’s ongoing development.

When we listen to somebody talking, we soon forget such relatively superficial qualities as accent and voice timbre (unless we are forcibly reminded of them at any point); we do not listen closely to the actual words, but go straight to the meaning - we forget the words almost as soon as they are spoken, the meaning we may retain. This meaning, together with its associations in the audience's mind (through visual, memory association or other means) forms an image that may be concrete, abstract, or a mixture of the two. If it is possible to present a subject in such terms, a considerable amount has been achieved in enabling the audience to learn for the podcast.

With that in mind, here is the latest episode from my 'Other' Podcast Transatlantic: the Flying Boats of Foynes ('New and Notable' according to the iTunes Podcast Store). If you choose to listen to the podcast, you'll notice that the piece is not merely a narrator telling a story: along with narration, there's dramatization, eye-witness accounts, and incidental and background music. Other sound elements included in the series of podcasts include archive recordings, wild track, and (in Part 5) a very cool sound collage to set the scene for the outbreak of World War 2 in September 1939.

The observant among you will notice that the piece isn't about e-learning. That's OK - the point of e-learning is to provide training professionals with a means of creating and distributing content that enables people to acquire information, knowledge, skills, and expertise on a diverse range of subjects: as e-learning practitioners, it's our job to facilitate this process.

In Part 3 of Transatlantic: The Flying Boats of Foynes:

On the 4th of July 1937, the Pan American flying boat Yankee Clipper inaugurated the west-east part of the transatlantic air route with Foynes as the fulcrum of the New York - Lisbon flight.

Chief Operator of Morse Code & Semaphore Frank Buckley describes the sight of Pan American Captain Harold Gray's Boeing B-314 Clipper arriving for the first time in Foynes, Ireland.

We get a sense of the glamour and the whiff of danger for passengers undertaking the still-difficult journey from one side of the Atlantic Ocean to the other.

We tell the story of the invention of Irish Coffee.

Click here to listen.

As one of the contributors in the podcast has quite a noticeable regional accent, I've included a transcript for the podcast - indeed, some people may find using their visual as well as their audio register is a more satisfying experience. Click here to view the transcript of this podcast (PDF, 30K).

Does this format work for podcasting in your view? Have I managed to elicit interest in the subject matter. As a listener, are you motivated to find out more, by retrieving Episodes 1 & 2 or by subscribing to the series? Let me know what you think.
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References:

Bates, A. W. (1984). Broadcasting in education: an evaluation. London: Croom Helm

Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, e-learning and distance education. Oxford: Routledge Falmer

de Freitas, S. & Mayes, T. (2005). JISC e-Learning Models Desk Study Stage 2: Review of e learning theories, frameworks and models. [Online] London, JISC. Available from: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/Stage%202%20Learning%20Models%20(Version%201).pdf [Accessed 15th January 2007]

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E-Learning Authoring Tools Characterized

E-Learning authoring tools are part of a larger organizational infrastructure and learning ecosystem which typically includes hardware, software, content delivery mechanisms, and processes that support the delivery and management of learning programs. This includes everything from hardware such as servers and workers’ desktop computers, software such as learning management systems (LMSs) and authoring applications, delivery mechanisms such as routers and network wiring, and services and processes such as systems administration and the help desk.

Broadly speaking, an authoring tool is a software package which developers use to create and package content for delivery to end users.

More specifically, e-learning authoring tools enable trainers to integrate an array of media to create professional, engaging, interactive training content, and make use of digitized media assets, as well as learning objects from an existing course for reuse in a new one.

Typically, e-learning content developers integrate digital media including:

• Text
• Images
• Animations
• Audio
• Video

…to create e-learning content and courseware.

Since the term 'authoring tool' is somewhat non-specific, many programs can be considered authoring tools, including web editors like Dreamweaver, Flash, PowerPoint and even content platforms like Adobe Connect provide the facility to create learning content.

In 2003 Bill and Katherine Horton (E-learning Tools and Technologies, p.278) further refined this description and categorized the different types of tools into five domains of application (see Table 1) based upon the output that the tools are used to generate.

Table 1 Categories of Authoring Tools

Category	Description
Course Authoring Tools	Expressly designed for creating e-learning. Such tools simplify the process of implementing instructional strategies, creating menus and navigation schemes, and authoring pages—without extensive technical knowledge.
Web Site Authoring Tools	Used in creating mark-up language (i.e. HTML, XML) for web pages, and linking them to produce entire websites. Such sites include courses, or material associated with courses. By including scripting, dynamic display effects, and connections to databases, these tools can create interactive e-learning content.
Testing and Assessment Tools	Used to create and manage assessments. These tools create true-false, multiple-choice, short-answer, text-entry, matching-lists, and other kinds of computer-scored tests. Some facilitate performance tracking and the ability to generate learner-related metrics and related reports.
Media Editors	Used for creating, editing, and "Web-readying" digital images, icons, photographs, animations, sounds, video, and other digital media used in e-learning
Content Conversion Tools	Used for transforming documents, presentations, graphics, audio, video, and other content to formats that can be used in e-learning and on the Web.
Web 2.0 Tools*	Used to facilitate communication, information sharing, interoperability, user-centered design, and collaboration on the Web. It has led to the development and evolution of web-based communities, hosted services, and web applications. Includes social-networking sites, video-sharing sites, wikis, blogs, mashups and folksonomies.

Looking at Table 1, you'll see that I’ve asterisked the bottom category; it's a testament to the evolution of web technologies over the six short years since Horton & Horton’s text was published, a whole new category of authoring tools has emerged, so in my view it's justified to add this Read/Write Web (or Web 2.0) tools category to their list.

Significantly, the lines between applications specialized for learning, and applications intended for other uses have blurred. In addition to using traditional e-learning packages, learning professionals and organizations are engaging with the concept of using using more generally available communication media such as synchronous web conferencing, instant messaging, mobile devices, video conferencing,online documents (and document collaboration), application sharing, knowledge management tools, and e-mail for training.

These technologies can be used as stand-alone substitutes for traditional e-learning software, or to complement other learning channels and modalities. The advantage of using these types of tools is that support the ways the people in every organization and in every training situation already share knowledge: they have conversations, make presentations, perform demonstrations, make conference calls, and give lectures.

More...

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References:

Horton, W., and Horton, K. (2003). E-learning Tools and Technologies: A consumer's guide for trainers, teachers, educators, and instructional designers, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana.

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