Gagne and the Events of Instruction: Discovering Instructional Design 19

In yesterday's post, I looked at the ASSURE instructional design model, which was originally developed by Heinich et al in the 1990's, and is now popularly and widely-used in both classroom and e-learning environments.

Given the ASSURE Model's constructivist epistemology and successful implementation in early 21st Century educational contexts, you may be surprised to learn that the ASSURE methodology has it's roots very firmly located the venerable, behaviorist-influenced (and occasionally criticized) Events of Instruction, devised by Robert M. Gagne.*

Now read on…

According to Kevin Kruse (2006)

Robert Gagne is considered to be the foremost researcher and contributor to the systematic approach to instructional design and training. Gagne and his followers ...focus [...] on the outcomes - or behaviors - that result from training.

I would assert that familiarity with Gagne’s work, and educators’ drive to continually investigate the New have perhaps led to a certain disregard (in some quarters) for the substantial contribution Gagne made to our discipline. For example, to characterize Gagne as a Behaviorist is, in my view, to underestimate the sophistication of his theories, the elegance of his models, and the relevance of his work today. Indeed, Walter Wager (2004) states that

Gagne didn't feel that the behaviorist theories were adequate to explain human learning. Rather, Gagne should be considered one of the early cognitive psychologists.

(p.296)

As I have previously indicated, his work still influences theorists and learning practitioners today. During his career, Gagne primarily concerned himself with understanding "the process of learning" (1972, p.1). In his life, he was central to the development of five instructional theories:

1. the five domains of learning
2. events of instruction
3. conditions of learning
4. role of the media
5. integrated goal theory (Wager, 2004)

Gagne's text The Conditions of Learning (first published in 1965) attempted to identify and describe the cognitive processes that occur in learning: the eponymous ‘conditions of learning.’ His philosophy was influenced by the concepts of cognitive mapping, as well as the information processing interpretation of the events that occur when (adult) learners are presented with various stimuli. In The Conditions of Learning, Gagne argued that that internal and external conditions of learning must be created to stimulate the desired learning response.

To understand the sequence of activities needed to support learning, Gagne suggested that tasks for

acquiring the intellectual skills needed should be organized according to complexity.

(Hriko, 2008, p.353)

He argued that information underwent a series of internal processes before being stored in long-term memory; he developed a nine-step process called the Events of Instruction to represent the manifestation of the external factors that influenced the acts associated with the process, which "correlate to and address the conditions of learning" (Hriko, 2008 p.353). Table 1 shows these instructional events in the left column and describes the associated mental processes in the right column.

Table 1. Nine Events of Instruction (after Gagne, 2004)

Instructional Event	Internal Mental Process
1. Gain attention	Stimuli activates brain's receptors
2. Inform learners of objectives	Creates level of expectation for learning
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning	Retrieval and activation of short-term memory
4. Present the content	Selective perception of content
5. Provide "learning guidance"	Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory
6. Elicit performance (practice)	Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification
7. Provide feedback	Reinforcement and assessment of correct performance
8. Assess performance	Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job	Retrieval and generalization of learned skill to new situation

More…

* Yes, his name is Robert Gagné (with an acute aigu ), but English speakers typically don’t enter accents into Google, and I’m nothing if not pragmatic…
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References:

Gagne, R. M., (1972). Domains of learning. Interchange 3(1),pp.1-8.

Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. and Keller, J.M. (2004). Principles of Instructional Design (5th.Ed.). Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc.

Kruse, K. (2006). Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction: An Introduction. E-Learning Guru. Internet: Available from: http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art3_3.htm Accessed 12 June 2009

Hriko, M. (2008) Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction. In: Tomei, L.A., Morris, R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Information Technology Curriculum Integration. Information Science Reference

Wager, W. (2004) Robert M. Gagne. In: Kovalchick, A., and Dawson, K. (Eds.), Education & Technology: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO

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ASSURE Model: Discovering Instructional Design 18

As we saw when we investigated the Three-Phase Design Model, a number of stakeholders including subject matter experts, educationalists, and technical experts need to work together to design and develop learning programs and educational courseware.

The ASSURE Model is a constructivist approach to training design developed by Robert Heinich and Michael Molenda of Indiana University and James D. Russell of Purdue University in the 1990's.

ASSURE is an acronym derived from the key verb descriptor of the tasks associated with the approach. As such, the model proposes a six-step guide for planning and delivering instruction; while not specifically designed for e-learning, in practice it the methodology seems to align to the requirements of designing courseware for that modality.

The steps (or tasks) are described in detail in Table 1:

Table 1 ASSURE Model components (after Human Resource Development website)

A	Analyze Learners	Prerequisite skills or knowledge What courses are taken prior to this one? What knowledge is assumed? Learning Styles of the students - This model emphasizes teaching for different learning styles. Motivations - Why is the learner taking the course?
S	State Objectives	Statements describing what the learner will do as a result of instruction. Things to keep in mind as you write your objectives are: Focus on the learner, not the teacher Use behaviors that reflect real world concerns Objectives are descriptions of the learning outcomes and are written using the ABCD format. Audience: Who is the audience? Specifies the learner(s) for whom the objective is intended. Behavior: What do you want them to do? The behavior or capability needs to be demonstrated as learner performance, an observable, measurable behavior, or a real-world skill. Use an action verb from the helpful verbs list if you have difficulty doing this. Condition: Under what circumstances or conditions are the learners to demonstrate the skill being taught? Be sure to include equipment, tools, aids, or references the learner may or may not use, and/or special environmental conditions in which the learner has to perform. Degree: How well do you want them to demonstrate their mastery? Degree to which the new skill must be mastered or the criterion for acceptable performance (include time limit, range of accuracy, proportion of correct responses required, and/or qualitative standards.)
S	Select Methods, Media and Materials	You need to decide what method you will primarily use to support the learning objectives: for example: lectures, online collaboration, group work, a field trip, etc. What media you will use: photos, multimedia, video? Are you using store bought materials, getting an outside resource to provide materials, modifying something you already have, or develop something from scratch? Selection Criteria: Media Selection - Media should be selected on the basis of student need. - We must consider the total learning situation. - Should follow learning objectives. - Must be appropriate for the teaching format. - Should be consistent with the students' capabilities and learning styles. - Should be chosen objectively. - Should be selected in order to best meet the learning outcomes. - No single medium is the total solution. - Does it match the curriculum? - Is it accurate and current? - Does it contain clear and concise language? - Will it motivate and maintain interest? - Does it provide for learner participation? - Is it of good technical quality? - Is there evidence of its effectiveness (e.g., field-test results)? - Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising - Is a user guide or other documentation included?
U	Utilize Media and Materials	Plan how you are going to implement your media and materials. For each media type and/or materials listed in the Select step, describe in detail how you intend to implement them into your lesson to help your learners meet the lesson's objective. Do this for each item. In order to utilize materials correctly there are several steps to creating good student-centered instruction. 1. Preview the material- Never use anything in class you have not verified and validated. 2. Prepare the material- Make sure you have everything you need and that it all works. 3. Prepare the environment- Set up the classroom so that whatever you’re doing will work in the space you have. 4. Prepare the learners- Give the students an overview, explain how they can take this information and use it and how they will be evaluated up front. 5. Provide the learning experience- Teaching is simply high theatre. Showmanship is part of the facilitator's job. Teaching and learning should be an experience not an ordeal.
R	Require Learner Participation	Describe how you are going to get each learner "actively and individually involved in the lesson. Ex: games, group work, presentations, etc. All activities should provide opportunities to manipulate the information and allow time for practice during the demonstration of the skill.
E	Evaluate and Revise	Describe how you will evaluate and measure whether or not the lesson objectives were met. Were the media and the instruction effective? Evaluate student performance: How will you determine whether or not they met the lesson's objective? The evaluation should match the objective. Some objectives can be adequately assessed with a pen and paper test. If the objectives call for demonstrating a process, creating a product, or developing an attitude, the evaluation will frequently require observing the behavior in action. Evaluate media components: How will you determine the media effectiveness? Evaluate instructor performance: How will you determine whether or not your own performance as instructor/facilitator was effective?

While the learner's needs, the instructional goals, and the availability or desirability of particular media are the drivers for the design and development, Gunter and Baumbach (Education and Technology: An Encyclopedia, 2003) state that

The instructional goals should be the focus, not the goal. When integrating technology, it should always be viewed as a tool that assists... the learning needs of the student. The teacher becomes a mentor and colearner, who is actively engaged in enabling students to access, analyze, apply, and create information electronically.

(pp.193-194)

More…

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References:

Gunter, G. & Baumbach, D. (2004). Curriculum Integration. In: Education and Technology: An Encyclopedia. (Kovalchick, A. & Dawson, K. Eds). ABC-CLIO; illustrated edition

Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino, S. (2002). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning (7th Ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Human Resource Development [Internet] Available from: http://itchybon1.tripod.com/hrd/id15.html Accessed 10th June 2009

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Discovering Instructional Design 12: the ICARE Model

In the broadest sense of the term, 'instructional design' has been described as

…an emerging profession, (2) focused on establishing and maintaining efficient and effective human performance, (3) guided by a model of human performance, (4) carried out systematically, (5) based on open systems theory, and (6) oriented to finding and applying the most cost-effective solutions to human performance problems and discovering
quantum leaps in productivity improvement through human ingenuity.

(Smith & Tillman, 2004 p.1)

More prosaically Gustafson & Branch consider instructional design (ID) as

a system of procedures for developing education and training programs in a consistent and reliable fashion. Instructional design is a complex process that is creative, active, and iterative.

(What is Instructional Design? 2002, p. 17)

The latter assert that instructional design is a complex systematic process with the following characteristics;

• interdependent - no elements can be separated from the system
• synergistic - all the elements can achieve more than the individual elements alone
• dynamic - systems can adjust to changing conditions in environments
• cybernetic - elements communicate among them efficiently

According to Gustafson and Branch, adhering to a instructional systems design process and can make instruction more effective and relevant to learners.

With these parameters in place, let's take a look at the ICARE approach to designing instruction. Based on the venerable Dick and Carey Model and pioneered by San Diego State University in 1997, the model has found a place in the higher education sector. According to Vincent Salyers (2006) ICARE has potential "as one possible means for structuring and organizing course content." As we'll see in my next blog post, the Centre for Learning Development at Middlesex University have adapted the ICARE framework, designed templates with built-in guidelines for use by academics with little experience in instructional design, and extended the model as the basic pedagogy for their ‘Global Campus’ instructional framework for distance education (Mojab & Huyck, 2001).

According to the ICARE Model's main proponents Hoffman and Ritchie (1998), the model is distilled from basic instructional design practice (see Table 1), and adapting various systems to what seemed to be particularly useful components for e-learning course design and development.

Table 1. The ICARE Model

Phase	Description
Introduction	This phase consists of the introduction to the unit of instruction including: Context Objectives Prerequisites Required study time Equipment required Essential reading materials
Connect or Content (MDX interation)	Almost all content will reside in this section
Apply All activities	Exercise, thinking questions, etc are implemented in this phase
Reflect	This phase provides an opportunity for learners to reflect on their acquired knowledge and articulate their experience. This section may include: topics for discussion, a learning journal/log, a self test, formative and summative assessment
Extend	An amalgamation of all the previous phases which offers materials and learning opportunities which can be remedial, supplemental, or advanced, depending on learner performance

In this context for example, when refactoring course content into online modules (what the authors term "distance learning units") a conventional 20-credit module is deconstructed into twenty units worth nine hours of study each. The model has the following five distinctive but interrelated components that are applied to individual lesson/lecture 'unit.'

More…

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References:

Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). What is instructional design? In: R.A. Reiser & J. A. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 16-25). Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Hoffman, B., & Ritchie, D.C (1998). (2005). Teaching and learning online: Tools, templates, and training. In: J. Willis, D. Willis, & J. Price (Eds.), Technology and teacher education annual - 1998. Charlottesville, VA: Association for Advancement of Computing in Education.

Mojab, D. & Huyck, C. (2001). The Global Campus at Middlesex University: A Model for E-Learning. [Internet] Available from: http://www.cwa.mdx.ac.uk/chris/draft6.doc Retrieved 3 June 2009

Salyers, V. (2006, July). Using the ICARE Format for Structuring Online Courses. Impact 2006, WebCT, 8th Annual Users Conference; San Antonio, TX.

Smith, P.L., & Tillman, J.R. (2004) Instructional Design (3rd Ed). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Books.

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Informal learning in action: Rapping about Web design coding on YouTube

A programmer friend of mine sent me a link to the YouTube video below. In it, the presenter Charles Lewis who goes by the nom de rap The Poetic Prophet (AKA The SEO Rapper) raps about the fundamentals of design coding for HTML websites and coding for search engine optimization.

You have to be impressed by a guy who can

• Rhyme about web standards
• Align with most of Gagne's Events of Instruction

Very informal, highly informative learning. I think it's fantastic.



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Non-formal learning in action: Information Sessions

As discussed in my last blog entry, learner intention - specifically deliberative learning (where the worker schedules time to learn) is a key definer of non-formal learning. As such, the development of an educationally sound theoretical framework, pedagogical approach and instructional design process (are essential in create a learning environment (both synchronous and asynchronous) conducive to the requirements of knowledge workers. At the same time, the content model must make effective use of available technologies, with the express purpose of countering the effects of cognitive overload (learners had consistently remarked on an imbalance of text to other media types – occasionally too much, but also, interestingly, in some instances not enough text on-screen to elucidate the topic, with the presenter “talking to, or around” the content where textual reinforcement would have assisted the participants understand the concepts being discussed (see Table 1).

I have developed the Information Sessions according to well-established learner-centric instructional principles. Specifically, they use a Constructivist theoretical model and a fusion of the ARCS Model and a Systems Design approach to the instructional design of content. A modality of Gagné’s Assumption is used as the basis for the Information Session structure, and the actual presentation format adheres to Gagné’s Events of Instruction (1-5, 7). Content is developed according Rapid eLearning principles. Information Session presenters are guided by the production team through the content creation process.

Table 1 Information Sessions High-level Typology

Function	Approach
Theoretical Framework	Social-Constructivist Model
High level ISD Process	ADDIE & RIO/RLO Model
Strategy	Based on Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Structure	Based on Gagné’s Conditions of Learning
Content	Uses a multimedia mix of text, slides, images, animation, Flash and video demonstrations
Delivery	The events are hosted as live Subject Matter Expert (SME)-led events, presented in the following format
Synchronous	Asynchronous
Live audience at Information Session location	On-demand post live event
Synchronously streamed on the web	DVD-ROMs available to KWs. Each DVD-ROM contains one series of 10±2 Information Sessions

An important aspect of Information Sessions is the simultaneous use of face-to-face presentation with synchronous Web delivery, as well as post-event asynchronous distribution of content via the Web and on DVD-ROM, ensuring the widest-possible distribution of content and ensuring just-in-time access to knowledge and domain expertise across an organisation.

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